Literature Review
The literature review has established viewpoints of other authors about unique characteristics of tourism industry. Literature review has revealed the following unique characteristics of tourism industry as summarised by TSA project in 2008: Firstly, the tourism is not an industry. The rationale behind this viewpoint relates to the idea that tourism comprises a wide range of individual businesses in a wide range of areas such as catering, transportation, entertainment, manufacturing and others. However, this viewpoint is not shared by all authors and many prominent authors in the area of tourism such as Webb (2009), Solomon and Rabolt (2009) and Rajagopal (2010) still refer to tourism as an industry. Secondly, in tourism consumers come to products. It is not possible to import tourism products and services or to provide them to customers through other channels and this point can be specified as an important distinctive feature of tourism industry from other industries. Thirdly, in tourism location is a part of the product. In tourism industry it is difficult to make a clear distinction between the value of a tourism destination and a wide range of products and services offered in this destination. In other words, tourism interconnects many separate businesses into a single entity (Schiffman et. al., 2012). Moreover, according to literature review findings there are range of systems that can be applied in order to characterise tourism destinations. For example, a system proposed by Pearce (2005) identifies six different labels in tourism industry and explains characteristics of each label. Label Emphasis Characteristics and examples of the system Activities Physical Listings, profiles, GIS approach Settings Physical Public management agencies use of zones using a biophysical basis Facilities Physical Micro-environments and service escapes: the immediate physical features of the tourist space Service Social Personnel: the characteristics of personnel in the service…
Biersteker (1995) explores apparent triumph of liberal economic ideas in the developing world by concentrating on the nature of change in economic thinking. According to this article dramatic changes in economic thinking in developing countries took place mainly during the period of 1980s and 1990s. Differences in perceptions between countries and their impact on implementing liberal economic ideas are stressed by Biersteker (1995) to explain variations on the levels of economic liberalisation amongst Latin American countries. Biersteker (1995) offers an interesting account of the impact of liberalism on developing countries. Specifically, Biersteker (1995) discounts the impact of following four factors in facilitating change in economic thinking – perception of superiority of liberal ideas by developing countries, exercise of power by international financial institutions such as IMF and the World Bank, intensifying forces of globalisation, and collapse of socialism. Instead, Biersteker (1995) offers explanation for change in economic thinking from four different perspectives: ideational, systematic, domestic interest, and international institutional perspectives. A noteworthy shortcoming associated with this approach is associated with being overly idealistic. While the author accepts this fact by stating that “each of these should be considered as an idealised construction” (Biersteker, 1995, p.181), nevertheless, the idealised approach undermines the level of practical relevance of the work. Reyes and Sawyer (2011) offer an alternative approach to the work of Biersteker (1995) by identifying perception of superiority of liberal ideas as the most significant factor fuelling change in economic thinking in developing counties during the last three decades of the last century. References Biersteker, T.J. (1995) “The “triumph” of liberal economic ideas in the developing world” in Global Change, Regional Response: The New International Context for Development, editor Stallings, B., Cambridge University Press Reyes, J.A. & Sawyer, C.W. (2011) “Latin American Economic Development” Taylor & Francis
The topic of consumer behaviour is one of the massively studied topics by the researchers and marketers in the past and still being studied. Researchers show different reasons as to why consumer behaviour has been the topic of many academics and researchers. One of the common views is that understanding consumer behaviour has become a factor that has a direct impact on the overall performance of the businesses (Kotler and Keller, 2012). Another view suggests that understanding consumer behaviour has become crucial especially due to fierce competition in retail industry in the UK and worldwide (Lancaster et al, 2002). This chapter will introduce some other areas of research background of consumer behaviour addressing the works of researchers and marketers. Moreover, consumer decision making process, in particular, five stages of consumer decision making process will be discussed in detail. Introduction It is worth noting that consumer buying behaviour is studied as a part of the marketing and its main objective it to learn the way how the individuals, groups or organizations choose, buy use and dispose the goods and the factors such as their previous experience, taste, price and branding on which the consumers base their purchasing decisions (Kotler and Keller, 2012). One of such studies of consumer buying behaviour has been conducted by Acebron et al (2000). The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of previous experience on buying behaviour of fresh foods, particularly mussels. In their studies the authors used structural equation model in order to identify the relationship between the habits and previous experience on the consumer buying decision. Their findings show that personal habits and previous experience on of the consumers have a direct impact on the consumers’ purchase decision in the example of purchasing fresh mussels. They also found that the image of the…
Burke (2012) links the impacts of the global economic crisis of 2008-2010 with spending cuts on education system by the UK government. Chalabi and Arnett (2013), on the other hand, make an interesting observation related to the issue. Specifically, according to Chalabi and Arnett (2013), the levels of GDP in the UK decreased by 2 per cent between 2008 and 2010, whereas the levels of public expenditure on education have increased by 8 per cent during the same period. A large-scale survey conducted by Education Institution (2009) has attempted to assess impacts of the global economic crisis on education in 48 countries, including the UK. Infrastructure, human resources (HR), and other needs of the UK education system have been found as a result of the survey. Infrastructure needs of UK education system, according to Education Institution (2009) relates to necessity to rebuilt primary schools. Other needs are found to relate to funding for high quality continuing professional development of teachers and challenges associated with reforming curriculum and qualification system. However, it is important to note that Education Institution (2009) findings only relate to education in public sector, and the level of relevance of data to private sector educational institutions are yet to be established. Burke (2012) considers dramatic reduction of numbers of graduate employment schemes offered by multinational companies in 2009 as the direct impact of the global economic crisis. Although, this argument appears to be convincing, Burke (2012) fails to back-up the claim through referring to relevant statistical data. Vaitilingam (2010) points to the risk of lifetime earning loss for a generation of graduates that join full-time workforce during or immediate aftermath of recession. According to Vaitilingam (2010), this situation may occur due to rapid increase in the supply of graduates compared to jobs caused by cuts on graduate…
There is a large volume of published studies analysing major reasons of the global economic crisis of 2008-2010. Excessive risk taking by financial institutions in the US combined with inefficiencies with US housing regulations is shown as primary causes of global recession by Roberts (2009) and Heng (2010). Heng (2010) offers detailed account of the issue and effectively demonstrates that US-based financial institutions have encouraged individuals with no adequate credit history to own homes and rapid decline of house prices, phenomenon known as ‘housing bubble’ has given start to a severe global financial and economic crisis. A study conducted by Sobel (2012) confirms excessive risk taking and inefficiencies with housing regulations as reasons behind the economic crisis and also discussed additional factors not mentioned by many other authors. Specifically, according to Sobel (2012), inadequacies in formulating interest rate policies, as well as, policies to suppress inflation in the US have also played major role in creation of environment that led to the global economic crisis of 2008-2010. Globalisation is perceived by Tan (2010) as one of the major enabling factors of the global economic crisis of 2008-2010. The topic of globalisation is addressed by Samson and Daft (2012) in great details. Specifically, Samson and Daft (2012) divide globalisation into four stages and cultural sensitivity and managerial assumptions in each stage in the following manner: 1. Domestic 2. International 3. Multinational 4. Global Strategic orientation Domestically oriented Export-oriented, multi-domestic Multinational Global Stage of development Initial foreign involvement Competitive positioning Exposition of international operations Global Cultural sensitivity Of little importance Very important Somew hat important Critically important Manager assumptions ‘one best way’ ‘many good ways’ ‘the least-cost way’ ‘many good ways’ Four stages of globalisation Source: Samson and Daft (2012) However, while linking financial crisis and globalisation, Tan (2010) fails to…
While there is a consensus amongst authors regarding rapid hegemonic rise of China opinions divide about sustainability of this tendency in long-term or even medium term perspectives. On one hand, there are authors such as Zhang (2012), Sobel (2012) and Joseph (2013) who express firm belief about the sustainability of Chinese hegemony. This group of authors refer to the strong competitive advantage of economy of China that is expanding beyond the cost advantage of resources to compete with producers from developed countries on quality levels. On the other hand, a range of authors such as Catley and Mosler (2007), Balogun (2011) and Nye (2011) adopt a sceptical approach about sustainability of hegemony of China in long-term perspectives. This specific group of authors justify their stand by stating that China’s hegemonic rise is directly conditioned by its volume of exports, and sustainability of volume of export depend on a wide range of internal and external factors that are becoming increasingly volatile. Nevertheless, the literature review has found a set of political, economical and social factors that contribute to the rise on the level of hegemony of China. Each of these factors is discussed below in greater details. Political Factors Political factors contributing to the rise of China’s hegemony are closely associated with damages to the reputation of present world hegemon – the USA through unsuccessful engagement in a series of foreign wars (Catley and Mosley, 2007, Zhang, 2012, Joseph, 2013) and a range other factors discussed below. Zhang (2012) argues that financing overseas wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya is draining national economy of the USA. Moreover, eagerness of the US President Barack Obama to initiate military engagements in Syria is most likely to have highly detrimental impacts on the level of national economy. Moreover, US government sponsors a range…
Literature review has found a debate about the impacts of hegemony to an open economic system. On one hand, authors such as Catley and Mosler (2007), Russett (2011) and Baker (2011) confirm positive role of hegemonic states in achieving macroeconomic stability in global scale. The main justifications behind this stance relate to hegemon serving as role model for other states and playing an instrumental role in creation and facilitation of monetary and trade regimes. Supporters of this viewpoint offer various examples to justify their view. Specifically, these examples include positive implications of the British hegemony in the 19th century to trade liberalisation, and reductions on the level of free trade in the global scale after the decline in British hegemony 1875 onwards (Catley and Mosler, 2007). Moreover, Russett (2011) argues that absence of hegemonic state within the period between the two World Wars has resulted in intensification of economic protectionism in many countries, and the situation has escalated to give rise to the emergence of the Great Depression. Russett (2011) further argues that macroeconomic stability has been achieved in many countries only after the emergence of the US as a powerful hegemon upon the completion of the World War II. According to this approach, the role of hegemonic states in global macroeconomics can be represented through the following points (Baker, 2011). a) Maintaining stabilised macroeconomic situation; b) Enforcement of free economy rules though the use of influence; c) Encouraging other counties to eliminate barriers to international trade; d) Contributing to the growth of national economies of other countries through imports On the other hand, sceptical approach towards the benefits of hegemonic states to macroeconomic stability and international trade has been expressed by Schake (2009) and Nye (2011). According to this group of authors bargaining and cooperation between countries is more…
By John Dudovskiy
Category: Literature Review
The nature of leadership in private sector organisations is directly impacted by the primary purpose of such organisations and this primary purpose is profit maximisation (DuBrin, 2012). This opinion is confirmed by Goldsmith et al. (2010), who perceive profit maximisation as the main assessment criteria for private sector organisational leaders. According to Gold et al. (2010) constant search for competitive advantage can be justly specified as one of the most fundamental characteristics of leadership in private sector organisations. According to this stance, competitive advantage can be derived from a wide range of sources and business processes, and it is the responsibility of a business leader to be able to formulate the most appropriate competitive advantage, and ensure its efficient utilisation. Stanfield (2009) explore the issues of ethics for modern business leaders and conclude that the level of ethical requirements have increased for business leaders in the last several decades contributed by increasing level of scrutiny business leaders are being subjected to. Stanfield (2009) offers justification for this claim by stating that increasing role of viral media in the society makes any evidence of unethical behaviour hard to escape from. Maintaining high level of flexibility and implementing changes in relation to various business processes in a constant manner is pointed to as a significant challenge to business leaders by Kezar et al. (2011) and Kreitner and Cassidy (2012). Moreover, Kezar et al. (2011) stress the role of assertiveness and communication skills for business leaders in order to be able to implement changes in an efficient manner. The issue of talent management by business leaders comprehensively addressed by Bertocci and Bertocci (2009) reveals another important aspect of successful leadership practice. Specifically, according to Bertocci and Bertocci (2009) human resources need to be perceived as the most valuable business asset in the 21st…
Numbers of authors have addressed different aspects of leadership in public sector organisations in their works. Generally, public sector leadership has been described as “more specific than general leadership and more expansive than political leadership” (Raffel, 2009, p.4). There have been attempts to classify the types of leaders and followers in public sector organisations within a certain framework. One of the most notable examples of such works belong to Wart (2009), how specifies the types of leaders and followers in public organisations in the following manner: Types of work Execution Policy New ideas Types of Followers Employees Managers Executives with policy responsibilities Transformational leaders Constituents Community leaders of volunteer groups Legislators and advisory board members Lobbyists and policy entrepreneurs Adherents Small group leaders Leaders of social movements Philosophical zealots and social trend setters Types of leaders and followers Source: Wart (2008) Gallos (2008) declares employee motivation to be one of the most significant challenges met by public sector organisational leaders. Bertocci and Bertocci (2009) offer more detailed explanation to this viewpoint by stating that whereas managers in private sector have greater level of freedom in terms of rewarding and motivating employees through tangible motivational tools such as bonuses and pay rises; managers in public sector do not have such opportunities most of the time due to budget constraints and greater level of accountability associated with budget spending. The nature and extent of accountability to stakeholders in public sector represents another point of difficulty to organisational leaders, Stanfield (2009) argues. The author asserts that unlike private sector organisations, in pubic sector there is a greater level of scrutiny of performance from media and a wide range of other stakeholders, and this situation creates extra difficulties for organisational leaders in public sector. Moreover, Gold et al. (2010) state…
Literature review has shed a light upon essential qualities for individuals holding leadership positions in organisations. Having a clear vision and the ability of articulating it in an efficient manner appears as one of the most important leadership skills in the majority of sources addressed during the preliminary literature review. According to Wart (2008) effective leaders are able to formulate motivating vision and create a situation where the vision is shared by all employees within the organisation. Communication skills are also crucially important to be possessed by organisational leaders (Gallos, 2008, Bertocci and Bertocci, 2009). Gallos (2008) explains the importance of communication skills for organisational leaders by referring to the fact that leaders need to communicate with different organisational stakeholders in a daily basis, and each category of these stakeholders pursue varying aims and objectives. According to Stanfield (2009) and Bertocci and Bertocci (2009) decisiveness marks important trait for organisational leaders. When discussing this specific leadership trait Stanfield (2009) refers to The Great Man leadership theory, and argues that individuals born with leadership skills are tend to be more decisive than individuals who have acquired their leadership skills on the course of their lives. However, Stanfield (2009) does not offer any evidences based on empirical studies to justify this viewpoint. Similarly, self-confidence has been viewed by Goldsmith et al. (2010) and Gold et al. (2010) as another important leadership trait. Goldsmith et al. (2010) conclude that the value of self-confidence as a leadership trait increases in times of crises when leaders need to be able to take decisions while a wide range of factors remain uncertain. In their analysis of an alternative leadership quality, integrity, Gold et al. (2010) convincingly argue that the lack of integrity associated with any organisational leader is difficult to conceal in modern times due to…